Polygraphs Essays - Polygraphy, Pseudoscience, Polygraph

Polygraphs Essays - Polygraphy, Pseudoscience, Polygraph Polygraphs Introduction Homo Sapiens have yearned for a reliable and consistently correct way of finding out if one is telling the truth since ancient times. ?Early societies used torture. Statements made by a person on the rack were considered especially believable.? (Jussim, pg.65) There was also trial by ordeal, which was based on superstition. For instance, if there were two suspects for one crime, it was thought that the innocent would be stronger in combat and thus vanquish a guilty opponent. This example shows how it was done long ago. ?The ancient Hindus made suspects chew rice and spit it into a leaf from a sacred tree. If they couldn?t spit, they were ruled guilty. Although this procedure long predated the modern lie detector, it was based-knowingly or not- on assumptions about psychological stress much like those that support polygraph examinations today. The ancient test depended on the fact that fear makes the mouth dry, so rice would stick in a guilty person?s mouth. For the procedure to work, the subject had to believe in its accuracy and, if guilty, had to be anxious about being caught in a lie.? (Ansley, pg. 42) The modern polygraph is said to measure the subject?s ?internal blushes? in much the same way. It does not really detect lies-only physiological responses. The theory behind the polygraph is that lying always heightens these responses. When taking the test, subjects are hooked up to a briefcase-sized machine by means of several attachments. usually, a pneumatic tube goes around the chest to measure respiration, a cuff squeezes one bicep to monitor blood pressure, and electrodes are attached to two fingertips to determine the skin?s resistance to electrical current (which is related to how much the subject is sweating). An examiner, or polygrapher, quizzes the subject. As the subject answers the questions, the machine draws squiggles on a chart representing physiological responses, which are supposed to clue the examiner in to the subject?s lying, or truthful, ways. Just as the ancient Hindu was betrayed by a dry mouth the modern polygraph subject is said to indicate that he or she is lying by breathing harder or having a racing pulse. (In arriving at a conclusion about a person?s deceptiveness, some polygraphers also use their own subjective observations of the person?s behavior.) The test will not work, though, if the subject does not believe in the procedure. If the subject doesn?t not think the machine can tell the examiner anything, then he or she won?t be anxious and won?t show the heightened responses that the machine is designed to record. Because of this, the examiner will often use deceptive tricks to impress the subject with the polygraph?s alleged accuracy. Modern polygraphy got its start in Chicago in the 1930s, where it was used in criminal justice investigations. Now it has a wide range of other applications, including screening job applicants and employees, conducting intelligence investigations in federal security departments like the Central Intelligence Agency, and trying to uncover the source of unauthorized disclosures to the press of government documents or information. The strategies used by polygraphers vary from one application of the machine to another. in pre-employment screens, subjects are typically asked a series of about twenty questions. ?Irrelevant? questions like ?Is your name Fred serve to put the subject at ease. Typical ?relevant? questions are: have you ever been convicted of a crime? Stolen from a previous employer? is all the information on your employment application correct? Do you take illegal drugs? This series is repeated, and if physiological responses to particular relevant questions are constantly and significantly higher than responses to others, the subject is reported as ?deceptive.? Investigations into specific incidents are more complicated. Tin these, ?relevant? questions concern only the alleged wrong doing-for instance, ?Did you steal the missing $400 To determine truthfulness, polygraph responses to these questions are compared with responses to other questions- called ?control? questions-that are provocative but do not relate to the incident. The use of polygraphs in the work place greatly increased over the last fifteen years, and now over two million of them are given annually in the United States. Seventy-five percent of them are administered to job applicants. Other tests are given periodically or randomly to employees or as part of an investigation in the wake of a theft or act of sabotage. Although subjects technically submit to testing ?voluntarily? - generally signing a release saying they are willing to undergo such an examination- they actually have few options. Applicants who refuse a

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words - 2

Leadership - Essay Example During any change there is resistance to change by the employees. Managing change requires leadership and leadership during mergers and acquisitions can be challenging. Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are seen as long-term strategic orientation of the firm and not a one-time business tactic for short-term goals (Lin, Hung & Li, 2006). Industry consolidation and privatization, and the liberalization of economies are the most significant factors that have fueled M&A at the international level. They continue to be a popular form of corporate development and industry and firm specific factors finally govern the reason and the purpose of the mergers and acquisitions. M&As are ‘among the most important strategic decisions companies ever make’ (cited by Duncan & Mtar, 2006). However, there are many instances when M&As have failed even when the mergers take place between firms within the industry. One such example is the merger of Daimler-Chrysler – two giant automobile companies – that was supposed to be a merger of equals. Covin, Kolenko, Sightler & Tudor (1997) find that leadership style impacts post merger satisfaction and tha t leadership should be a key consideration for mergers. This heightens the importance and the role of a leader during the change management when mergers take place. Since our organization is planning a cross-border merger, it is essential to plan and implement change. While both managers and leaders are necessary for a healthy organization, leadership differs from management. While management is the "mental and physical effort to coordinate diverse activities to achieve desired results", leadership is defined as "natural and learned ability, skill, and personal characteristics to conduct interpersonal relations which influence people to take desired actions" (Handbook for Excellence, n.d.). "You lead people; you manage things" is how John Pejza expresses the difference between the two in this book. Through

Comparison and Differences between Date Positivism and Post-Positivism Assignment

Comparison and Differences between Date Positivism and Post-Positivism Concepts - Assignment Example Post-positivism is the exact rejection of the tenets that supported positivism. Having been coined after the original idea, post-positivism recognizes that the observable world has a connection between what scientists think and work. This implies that there is no difference between the scientific reasoning and the common sense reasoning. To verify observable phenomena in science, procedures are followed. This, therefore, means that in the scientific verifications, something beyond the measurable and observable, in this case, knowledge is achieved (Giddens & Sutton, 2010). To the sociology research today, the two concepts are important in that they guide the search for scientific answers. Whereas the positivist view of research holds that science should measure the observable in the search for truth, the post-positivist view of the same is that all measurements have an error and is fallible. This means that deeper inquiry is required to ensure that science holds steadfast the goal of getting it right about what is measured in research. The order perspective is based on the belief that the society is held close by shared principles and concepts. These concepts are responsible for the social consensus that is observed in any society. The cohesion and interdependence of the people in the society are a secured by the shared norms and beliefs (organic and mechanical solidarity). Conflicts according to this perspective arise from new perspectives that come to intrude the normal perceptions of beliefs and concepts. In the light of this perspective, structural approach to social work aims at maintaining the social prestige with little if any interference with the social structures and the related stability (Turner, 2012). The conflict perspective, on the other hand, is based on the concept of power and inequality in the society. As a result, the cohesion that exists in a society is unhealthy and not supposed to be maintained.

Dreams and Dreaming Nightmares in Children Essay Example for Free

Dreams and Dreaming Nightmares in Children Essay This literature review will go over cross-cultural research articles which study nightmares in children, particularly what could be the cause of some of the nightmares in children. One article studied the relationship between daytime symptomatology (daily effects) and nightmare frequency in school-aged children (Schredl et al. , 2009). The article set out to find whether social and personal events were causing nightmares in the children, and furthermore wanted to find whether the children’s parents underestimated the frequency of their children’s nightmares (Schredl et al., 2009). To expand on this research, a second article was reviewed which studied the relationship between negative media children are exposed to in their waking life on children’s dreaming life (Schredl et al., 2008). This study sought to find a correlation between high amounts of television watched, computer games played and higher frequency of nightmares (Schredl et al., 2008). As a final further expansion on the research presented, the third article reviewed addressed some of the limitations the previous studied encountered and studied the same hypothesis: exposure to negative media would heighten nightmare frequency in children (Van den Bulck, 2004). The findings from these articles offered information on the frequency of nightmares in children and how that frequency relates to external and internal events. The first article reviewed is of Schredl et al. (2009) which produced a study that examined the relationship between daytime symptomatology and nightmare frequency in school-aged children. The study involved eliciting day time symptoms and nightmare frequency directly from the children, with an age range of eight years to eleven years old. In addition to the children’s information, the researchers collected questionnaires by the parents about their children’s dreaming (Schredl et al., 2009). The researchers hypothesized that the parents would show an underestimation of nightmare frequency (Schredl et al., 2009). Furthermore, the researchers hypothesized that there would be a stronger relationship found between nightmare frequency and daytime triggers in the data from children than in the data from the parents (Schredl et al., 2009). 4,834 parents and 4,531 of their children participated in the study where they completed questionnaires regarding sleep behaviour as well a s social behaviour; the parents answering questions about the children and the children answering about themselves (Schredl et al., 2009). The results of the study found that there is a very clear underestimation of nightmare frequency by parents (Schredl et al., 2009). The ‘often’ category for the frequency of nightmares was chosen fifty percent more often by children than the parents (Schredl et al., 2009). This research found a high correlation between emotional problems and the questionnaire completed on social behaviour by the children showing that children who worry, having anxieties, and feel unhappy have more frequent nightmares (Schredl et al., 2009). Some of the other items from the sleep questionnaire included measures of watching TV prior to bedtime, playing computer games prior to bedtime, and stressors in the family; all of which were not separately discussed in the results or discussion sections. Other researchers set out to find if media could take part in provoking nightmares in children. It is estimated that American children spend six hours and 32 minutes per day engaging in media such as television, movies, computer games, and internet surfing (Schredl et al., 2008). The second study reviewed attempted to answer whether negative or aggressive media has negative effects on children’s dreams (Schredl et al., 2008). The researchers hypothesized that frequent television watching and viewing of violent television, or aggressive computer games have a relation to higher nightmare frequency (Schredl et al., 2008). The participants involved 252 children with an age range of nine to thirteen years who completed questionnaires on dream recall, nightmare frequency and amount of time spent watching TV or playing computer games (Schredl et al., 2008). The original hypothesis was not supported in this study. Results found television viewing behaviour and computer game playing be fore bed was not related to emotional tone of dreams in children (Schredl et al., 2008). Previous studies had found significant correlation between negative dreaming and media use, the next study reviewed tested a similar hypothesis and obtained different findings. The final study review tested the types of content from different medias which appeared in children’s dreams, whether negative or pleasant (Van den Bulck, 2004). The study surveyed 2,546 children ages twelve to eighteen who filled out questionnaires regarding time spent engaged in media programs: television, computer games, movies (Van den Bulck, 2004). This study found that about 25 percent of the lowest age group studied have TV related nightmares monthly; moreover, 10 percent of them have TV related nightmares weekly (Van den Bulck, 2004). The higher age group has significantly less nightmares in general as well as TV related nightmares (Van den Bulck, 2004). In addition to collecting data on negative dreaming, the researchers attempted to get rid of the third variable problem by asking questions abo ut TV related pleasant dreams and surprisingly found that about 60 percent of the youngest age group in the study reported having pleasant dreams related to TV viewing (Van den Bulck, 2004). In addition to these findings, the researcher’s data showed that 50 percent of the oldest age group in the study reported never having pleasant dreams related to the TV content (Van den Bulck, 2004). Finally, the research shows that there was a small but significant relationship between preferences for certain types of TV content and both pleasant and unpleasant dreams; it appears that violent content in TV is not directly related to nightmares, and other media types induce nightmares as well (Van den Bulck, 2004). So, the Van den Bulck (2004) study seemed to rule out some of the problems of the previous study had with proving their hypotheses which is important for future research on this subject. Schredl et al. (2009) found that parents underestimate the frequency of their children’s nightmares and children who identify having emotional difficulties experience significantly higher sleeping problems including nightmares. Schredl et al. (2008) were unable to prove their hypothesis that the more media children are exposed to, the more nightmares they will experience. And finally, the research of Van den Bulck (2004) exposed that media exposure correlates to both pleasant dreams and nightmares in children, most strongly at younger ages than older. In order to conclude this literature review, limitations of the studies discussed and directions for future research must be identified. The first article reviewed addressed some limitations which included the potential that the child might overestimate their nightmare frequency if they mistake nightmares for night terrors, which the parents may let them know they are having (Schredl et al., 2009). Another reason the child could overestimate nightmare frequency would be if they had recently experienced a very vivid haunting nightmare before completing the questionnaire which could make them feel a heightened sensitivity to negative dreaming life (Schredl et al., 2009). For future research in order to expand on this study, it is recommended that researchers look deeper into parent and child ratings regarding occurrence of nightmares, as well as use more sophisticated measurements for child nightmare estimates as they could be easily subject to third variable problems and be biased or deficient (Schredl et al., 2009). The second article reviewed was not without its’ limitations as well. One of the most prominent limitations was the lack of strongly violent or disturbing television that was noted throughout the majority of the sample, the researchers felt as though not very many of the individuals has been exposed to very violent media (Schredl et al., 2008). So, for future research, a study should include films and games that children would not regularly be exposed to, those which would be deemed violent and aggressive (Schredl et al., 2008). The next study should also be a longitudinal study that can score media use habits and the occurrence of nightmares using self-rate scales as well as parental information regarding their children’s sleeping habits (Schredl et al., 2008). This would also be important to take on personality measures to determine that affect on relationships between media use and nightmare occurrences (Schredl et al., 2008). The final article noted that game and television related nightmares do not necessarily stem from violent and aggressive media, and it can actually derive itself out of any type of media, so future studies should not be limited to violent content (Van den Bulck, 2004). Another direction for future research would be to delve deeper into the study of children’s severity of nightmares, effect on sleeping habits, and variation in nightmares (Van den Bulck, 2004). This study represents data that media continues to occupy children’ References Custers, K., Van den Bulck, J. (2012). Fear effects by the media. Eur J Pediatr, 171, 613-616. Schredl, M., Anders, A., Hellriegel, S., Rehm, A. (2008). TV viewing, computer game playing and nightmares in school children. Dreaming, 18(2,69-76. Schredl, M., Fricke-Oerkermann, L., Mitschke, A., Wiater, A., Lehmkuhl, G. (2009). Factors affecting nightmares in children: parents’ vs. children’s ratings. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 18, 20-25. Van den Bulck, J. (2004). Media use and dreaming: the relationship among television viewing, computer game play, and nightmares or pleasant dreams. Dreaming, 14, 43-49.

Biography of Frederick Douglass Essay examples -- Informative Essay, B

Frederick Douglass was a combative African American slave born the year of 1818 in Tuckahoe, Maryland who fought his slave breaker during an unfair dispute and beat him. He demonstrated how a man was turned into a slave since birth then how a slave was turned into a man. As a rebellious runaway slave that later became known as the greatest abolitionists in history believed in his liberty more than his own life. Not only was he one of the most scholarly and effective orators but he also became revolutionary. As one of the best-known black leaders in the nineteenth-century he was asked to deliver a speech, â€Å"What to the Slave is the Fourth of July† to celebrate America’s independence from Britain. As an American slave he delivered this speech with an emotional content against America. His speech was seen as hypocrisy by not keeping up with the Declaration of Independence. However, as a former slave he was deprived from liberty for many years, which, makes America hypo critical by asking him to speak about liberty to the United States. Douglass rhetorically tells America, â€Å"Who so stolid and selfish that would not give his voice to swell the hallelujahs of a nation’s jubilee, when the chains of servitude had been torn from his limbs? I am not that man† (Douglass, 255) to make them see his point of view as a former slave talking about liberty. On July 5, 1852 Frederick Douglass was orating to America where he proclaimed â€Å"July fourth to be the bitterest reminder of America’s failed promise† (Douglass, 247). During this time the 1850 compromise was passed through congress where the Mason and Dixon line was established because of the controversy between the North and South. Some important parts were the 3/5th compromise in which a ... ...y,† demonstrates that they do not follow what they worship to the fullest. He is using the religious aspect of African Diaspora to demonstrate his point that liberty should be extended to all citizens including African American. Another part of African Diaspora is the study of back to Africa, which was mentioned by Martin Robinson Delany. Delany and Douglass had two opposing view of Africans living in the U.S. Frederick Douglass believed in mainstream ideas and that America can one day end slavery and welcome them as citizens. On the other hand, Delany believed that was not possible because they needed a county of their own. Both views were part of African Diaspora as well as religion which all unite to make one movement for people of African Descent dispersed all over the world. Works Cited "what to the slave, is the fourth of July" (1852), pp. 246-268

Ecology Assignment

Assignment 2 Define the following Terms: 1. ) Endotherm: Organisms that rely heavily on internally derived metabolic heat energy, Hm (Pg. 109) 2. ) Ectotherm: Animals that rely mainly on external sources of energer for regulating body temperature. (pg. 109) 3. ) Poikilotherms: Animals whose body temperature varies directly with environmental temperatures. (pg. 109) 1. ) Concept 6. 2 Review #2 during severe droughts, some of the branches of shrubs and trees die while others survive.How might losing some branches increase the probability that an individual plant will survive a drought? Because of the limited supply of water sacrafices must be made the trees and plants that are not able to sustain the harsh conditions of the drought die while the plants that thrive will live. Although leave and branches may fall that is okay because of the shortage of water there will be water going to the places that need it the most and the branches are not the most substantial part of the plant. The roots and the stem is therefore that is where the priority lies. . ) Concept Review 7. 1 #1What environmental conditions favor plants with C3 photosynthesis? Why? Plants in moist climates use C3 photosynthesis. C3 photosynthesis requires CO2 and is the most common and easiest type of photosynthesis available to plants, it uses only simple chemical reactions within the leaf and that’s all it needs in order to work properly. 3. ) Define the term haploid. A haploid is a single set of unpaired chromosomes. In haplodiploid systems, males develop from unfertilized eggs and are haploid. Females develop from fertilized eggs and are diploid.

The Supremacy Clause Conflict Between Federal And State Law

Term Paper LU2 Christina Wood The Supremacy Clause: Conflict between Federal and State Law as it relates to Medical Marijuana The American Constitution provides for a division of government powers between the federal and state governments, as well as provides solutions in an event of conflict between these two governments. The Supremacy Clause is derived through Constitutional Law and determines that the Constitution, Federal statutes, and United States treaties contain the â€Å"supreme law of the land†, creating the framework for the highest areas of law within the American legal system. Article VI, Section 2 of the United States Constitution contains The Supremacy Clause. â€Å"This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States†¦show more content†¦Another limitation set forth in the Constitution is that of anti-commandeering. Even though federal governments can enact law they cannot use the states as instruments of federal governance. Often overlooked, this argument used in appropriate cases to limit the Supremacy Clause, is found in the Constitution’s Tenth Amendment, â €Å"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. â€Å"The anti-commandeering principle applied to the issue of medical marijuana raises the question of protecting states’ prerogative to legalize activity that Congress bans. In a case where Congress legalizes an activity that the states have banned the issue of conflict need not arise because the individual’s choice remains whether to engage in said activity or not. In the instance of Congress banning an activity legalized by the states, conflict emerges with unclear boundaries. In 1970 Congress passed the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) to regulate the possession, manufacture, and distribution of drugs. This statute includes marijuana. Drugs are determined by their potential for abuse, medical value, and physical / psychological effects on the body. Marijuana is considered a Schedule I which is the cl ass or drugs most restricted, making the manufacture, distribution, andShow MoreRelatedThe Supremacy Clause Is The Clause That Establishes The Federal Government s Authority Over State Governments1521 Words   |  7 Pages Supremacy Clause Matthew Newkirk Constitutional Law Mr. Timothy Allmond Wiregrass Georgia Technical College November 19, 2015 â€Æ' Abstract The Supremacy Clause is the clause that establishes the federal government’s authority over state governments. The Supremacy Clause is found in the U.S. Constitution in Clause Two of Article Six. This Clause upholds the United States Constitution, federal statutes, and treaties as the supreme law of the land. Federal law’s supremacy applies only if CongressRead MoreFoundation of the American Legal System Essay example751 Words   |  4 Pagessystem. Explain the different roles of the federal and state government. The American legal system consists of two separate levels of court, defined as federalism, which together administer and enforce the laws in the United States. Federalism distributes the government powers between both the federal governments and the state governments, which ensures that the power of the national government is decentralized. The US Constitution divides the federal government into three branches - legislativeRead MoreThe Issue Of National Supremacy985 Words   |  4 Pages The issue of national supremacy is one that is addressed through several cases decided by the Marshall Court. McCullough v. Maryland (1819) and Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) are two of the most important cases concerning national supremacy that came to the Supreme Court during John Marshall s time as chief justice. While McCullough deals with the right of the federal government to create its own bank, Gibbons deals with the right of the federal government to regulate interstate and foreign commerceRead MoreThe Issue Of National Supremacy1258 Words   |  6 Pages The issue of National Supremacy is one that is addressed through several cases decided by the Marshall Court. National Supremacy refers to the idea that when a conflict arises between a state law and a federal law, the federal law will take precedence. It comes from the Suprema cy Clause in Article Six, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution. The clause makes the U.S. Constitution, its treaties, and its federal laws the highest laws in the country. McCullough v. Maryland (1819) and GibbonsRead MoreDifference Between Federalism And Federalism1273 Words   |  6 Pagesmaintaining, by some means, law and order. In addition to that, one system of government is Federalism and Federalism is â€Å"A form of government in which some powers are assigned to the national government, some to lower levels of government, and some, such as the power to tax, are exercised concurrently† (Jillson 40). This system of government power is divided between a national government and a government that operates in small regions governments. However, in the U.S, both State and National governmentsRead MoreThe American Legal System Of The United States1055 Words   |  5 PagesThe American Legal System In the American legal system there are two different areas of government, federal and state; it is called federalism. Together they work to enforce the laws of the United States. Each court system, however, is divided into many different layers. The federal courts have limited jurisdiction as opposed to the state courts that are of general jurisdiction. Federal and state governments are both divided into three different branches, the executive, legislative, and judicialRead MoreFederal Preemption Should Be Easily Decided1530 Words   |  7 PagesGorhan MBA 610 Business Law Final Paper: Federal Preemption January 25, 2015 Cases about federal preemption should be easily decided. The basis of the concept is written clearly in the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution. Article VI, Paragraph 2 states: This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judgesRead MoreFederal Supremacy Vs State Powers Essay1596 Words   |  7 PagesFederal Supremacy Vs State Powers Federalist No.51, â€Å"the power surrendered by the people† would be â€Å"divided between two distinct governments† creating a balance of power that would enable the â€Å"different governments to control each other.† -James Madison The Tenth Amendment states that â€Å"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states’, are reserved to the states’ respectively, or the people (List of Amendments to the United States Constitution)Read MoreThe Constitutional Law: Confusion vs. Denial1185 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿CONSTITUTIONAL LAW CONFUSION V DENIAL What court will have jurisdiction over Tanyas suit? Why? The most likely court with jurisdiction over Tanyas suit will be the federal court in the state of Confusion. That is because Tanyas suit raises a federal issue, that of the regulation of interstate commerce. Generally, such a case would be filed in the federal court in the same state where the alleged harm manifested itself. However, there is also a possibility that Tanya could seek to use the conceptRead MoreThe Law Enforcement And Safe Neighborhoods Act Essay1240 Words   |  5 Pagesversus United States, I am representing the respondent, United States, where we are seeking to stop the enforcement of S.B. 1070 in the federal district court before the law can be taken into effect. S.B. 1070, also known as Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act, was passed in the state of Arizona in 2010 as an effort to address the large numbers of unlawful immigrants entering the state. The United States seeks to declare S.B. 1070 as preempted by the federal immigration law, where the